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Another study showed the potential for combining ADSCs treatment with gene therapy by transducing ADSCs with a furin-cleavable insulin gene INS-FUR , which led to enhanced insulin expression in the differentiated adipocytes, and alleviated hyperglycemia in diabetic mice [ ].

Removing the need for adult stem cell donors completely, the umbilical cord is now used as a successful alternative stem cell source for regenerative medicine. Umbilical cord blood UCB is rich in HSCs, can be easily harvested without the need for interventions, and also contains a large number of naive functioning T-regulatory cells Treg with the potential to reduce autoimmunity [ , ].

Studies in animal models have showed encouraging results: when Prabakar et al. Following transplantation into mice, these cells subsequently differentiated into glucose-responsive IPCs [ ].

Zhao et al. The authors achieved reversal of the autoimmune response in NOD mice by transferring autologous Tregs that had been co-cultured with human UCB-MSCs; this led to increased insulin secretion, reduced hyperglycemia and preservation of islet architecture [ , , ]. Haller et al. However, a subsequent study by the same group found no significant difference in C-peptide levels after autologous transfusion of UCB-MSCs combined with oral docosahexaenoic acid and vitamin D supplementation [ ].

Similarly, in a non-randomized controlled trial in seven new-onset T1D children who underwent autologous UCB-MSCs infusion, there was no evidence of improvements in metabolic regulation or immune function at the one-year follow-up [ ]. Merging transient immune depletion agents with consequent infusion of expanded UCB Tregs may effectively balance the environment of Tregs and effector T cells in T1D patients. Finally, more controlled and randomized clinical trials are crucial to further improve the transplantation process and to investigate the mechanism of UB-MSC survival and behavior in live bodies overtime.

Further investigations with larger sample sizes will be important to understand how to translate the successful application of UCB-MSCs infusion from mouse to human. Briefly, WJ-MSCs collection occurs at the time of delivery and avoids the known adverse effects associated with adult stem cell collection from the bone marrow or adipose tissue.

Furthermore, features including a high WJ-MSCs proliferation rate, an immune privileged status, minimal associated ethical concerns, and non-tumorigenic capacity render these cells an excellent option to be used in regenerative medicine applications [ ]. Undifferentiated WJ-MSCs also have the capacity to induce a protective immune-suppressive state in animal models of T1D and in patients.

A study in mice performed by Tsai et al. Such evidence in rodents has since led to the initiation of human trials. A safety and dose-escalation trial is ongoing: in the first stage, Carlsson et al. A healthy lifestyle including eating pattern beside pharmacotherapy are major components of managing T1D. For many diabetic patients, determining what to eat is the most challenging part of the treatment plan. Effectual nutrition therapy interventions may be an element of a comprehensive T1D education package or an individualized session [ ].

Furthermore, T1D individuals on multiple daily insulin doses, the main focus for nutrition therapy must be on how to adjust insulin doses based on scheduled carbohydrate intake [ , ]. Reported HbA1 C from medical nutrition therapy MNT decreases are similar or greater than what would be expected with currently available pharmacologic therapies for T1D [ ].

Marked progress has been made in the past decade towards both personalized diagnosis and treatment for T1D, but significant obstacles and research gaps remain between the current state of knowledge and its translation into widespread clinical benefit. As in many other diseases, the precision medicine for T1D is a new and growing field.

In addition, patients need to know and understand the associated risks and expected benefits of being part of precision medicine research, which requires researchers to create a meticulous approach of obtaining informed consent to recruit participants to research studies.

Furthermore, cost-effectiveness of precision medicine approaches comparing to the current standard of care is a gap that needs to be resolved. The impact of diabetes on healthcare systems has been evaluated as the largest contributor to entire healthcare costs.

For example, in a study performed by Stedman et al. In summary, T1D individuals demanded five times additional secondary care support than non-diabetes subjects. It will be vital to decide when and how the application of therapeutics in precision diabetes medicine improves outcomes in a cost-effective style.

Much of our current knowledge of personalized therapeutic approaches to treat T1D comes from experiments in animal models; but a recurring theme in the T1D therapy field is the lack of translation between promising results in mice and the same outcome in humans. Mice are most commonly used for these experiments but exhibit both macroscopic and microscopic differences in pancreatic physiology and T1D pathophysiology. In addition, notable differences in the repertoire of receptors and long non-coding RNAs between mouse and human beta cells have been identified [ ].

In terms of modeling T1D, the NOD mouse has long been the approach of choice for majority of pre-clinical and translational invasive studies [ ]. The main strength of the NOD mouse is the presence of spontaneous autoimmunity leading to T1D [ , ] however, in the mice, this is triggered by the insulin antigen, while in humans this phenomenon is more complex, involving several inducing antigens followed by hyperglycemia [ , ].

Taken together, extreme caution must be exercised when attempting to draw conclusions from animal models and apply them to the human situation [ ]. Important research in human populations has revealed previously unappreciated heterogeneity within the T1D patient population.

The first step towards this will be the routine assessment of T1D subtype in newly diagnosed patients, including screening for monogenic T1D as well as autoantibody testing to distinguish idiopathic T1D, and, in future, genetic profiling to inform potential gene therapy or stem cell approaches. In diabetes, the precision medicine approach has been inspired by work including that of Zhao et al. Al-Anazi et al. In fact, the next step towards stem-cell-mediated precision medicine for T1D is likely to involve the incorporation of gene therapeutic approaches, synergizing existing stem cell knowledge with advances in cellular and genetic engineering techniques, such as nuclear transfer and genome editing.

Together these factors can all be used towards designing a successful protocol for precision medicine in T1D. Type 1 diabetes mellitus: etiology, presentation, and management. Pediatr Clin North Am. PubMed Article Google Scholar. Patterson CC, et al. Trends and cyclical variation in the incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes in 26 European centres in the 25 year period — a multicentre prospective registration study.

Worldwide increase in incidence of Type I diabetes—the analysis of the data on published incidence trends. Incidence of childhood type 1 diabetes worldwide.

Diabetes Care. Saeedi P, et al. Global and regional diabetes prevalence estimates for and projections for and Results from the International Diabetes Federation Diabetes Atlas. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. Article Google Scholar. Concordance for islet autoimmunity among monozygotic twins. N Engl J Med. Genetic risk factors for type 1 diabetes.

Barrett JC, et al. Genome-wide association study and meta-analysis find that over 40 loci affect risk of type 1 diabetes. Nat Genet. Sharp SA, et al. Development and standardization of an improved type 1 diabetes genetic risk score for use in newborn screening and incident diagnosis. Five years of GWAS discovery. Am J Hum Genet. Steck AK, et al. The CTLA-4 gene region of chromosome 2q33 is linked to, and associated with, type 1 diabetes.

Hum Mol Genet. Role of PTPN22 in type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune diseases. Semin Immunol. Genetics of type 1 diabetes. Clin Chem. Clayton DG. Prediction and interaction in complex disease genetics: experience in type 1 diabetes. PLoS Genet. The genetic interpretation of area under the ROC curve in genomic profiling.

Krischer JP, et al. The 6 year incidence of diabetes-associated autoantibodies in genetically at-risk children: the TEDDY study. Timing of initial cereal exposure in infancy and risk of islet autoimmunity.

Experience of a serious life event increases the risk for childhood type 1 diabetes: the ABIS population-based prospective cohort study. Rewers M, Ludvigsson J. Environmental risk factors for type 1 diabetes. Lancet London, England. Celiac disease and nonceliac gluten sensitivity: a review. Vitamin D and diabetes mellitus: Causal or casual association? Rev Endocr Metab Disord. Knip M, Siljander H. The role of the intestinal microbiota in type 1 diabetes mellitus. Nat Rev Endocrinol.

Childhood vaccination and type 1 diabetes. Environmental risk factors and type 1 diabetes: past, present, and future. Canad J Diabetes. Kolb H, Elliott R. Increasing incidence of IDDM a consequence of improved hygiene? Extreme genetic risk for type 1A diabetes in the post-genome era. J Autoimmun. Beyond genetics: what causes type 1 diabetes.

Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. The genetic basis for type 1 diabetes. Br Med Bull. Early-life factors contributing to type 1 diabetes. The heterogeneous pathogenesis of type 1 diabetes mellitus.

Out-of-pocket spending for insulin, diabetes-related supplies, and other health care services among privately insured US patients with type 1 diabetes.

Stedman M, et al. Cost of hospital treatment of type 1 diabetes T1DM and type 2 diabetes T2DM compared to the non-diabetes population: a detailed economic evaluation. BMJ Open. Estimating the cost of type 1 diabetes in the US: a propensity score matching method. PloS one. Insel RA, et al. Ziegler AG, et al. Seroconversion to multiple islet autoantibodies and risk of progression to diabetes in children.

Type 1 diabetes: disease stratification. Biomedicine Hub. C-peptide in juvenile diabetics beyond the postinitial remission period relation to clinical manifestations at onset of diabetes remission and diabetic control. Control, D. Effect of intensive therapy on residual beta-cell function in patients with type 1 diabetes in the diabetes control and complications trial.

A randomized, controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. Association between 7 years of intensive treatment of type 1 diabetes and long-term mortality. Larsson HE, et al. Reduced prevalence of diabetic ketoacidosis at diagnosis of type 1 diabetes in young children participating in longitudinal follow-up.

Clinical characteristics of children diagnosed with type 1 diabetes through intensive screening and follow-up. Dabelea D, et al. Markedly reduced rate of diabetic ketoacidosis at onset of type 1 diabetes in relatives screened for islet autoantibodies. Pediatr Diabetes. Lundgren M, et al. Reduced morbidity at diagnosis and improved glycemic control in children previously enrolled in DiPiS follow-up.

Krischer JP. The use of intermediate endpoints in the design of type 1 diabetes prevention trials. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Wildish D, Kristmanson D Benthic suspension feeders and flow.

Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Wottom RS The biology of particles in aquatic systems. Lewis, Boca Raton. Download references.

You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar. Box , , Bremerhaven, Germany. Reprints and Permissions. Gili, JM. Are Antarctic suspension-feeding communities different from those elsewhere in the world?. In: Arntz, W. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. Publisher Name : Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. Print ISBN : Online ISBN : Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:.

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Learn about institutional subscriptions. Preview Unable to display preview. Sarsia 53 — 69 Google Scholar Johnson AS Hydrodynamic study of the functional mor-phology of the benthic suspension feeder Phoronopsis viridis Phoronida. Polar Biol 11 — 16 CrossRef Google Scholar Klumpp DW Nutritional ecology of the ascidian Pyura stolonifera : influence of body size, food quantity and quality on filter-feeding, respiration, assimilation efficiency and energetic balance.

Am Nat — CrossRef Google Scholar Thomsen L Processes in the benthic boundary layer at continental margins and their implication for benthic carbon cycle.

Species were of similar body size and standard lengths SL ranged: B. Calculations of morphological metrics of mouth structures and muscles of the head were conducted after dissecting the connection between muscles and bones. Measures were taken in mm to the nearest 0. The relationship between mouth morphology and suction feeding performance was estimated by the Suction Index SI Collar and Wainwright ; Bansode et al.

The model for SI Fig. Following Carroll et al. The cross-sectional areas of the ellipse-shaped epaxialis were calculated by the measurements of their axes.

The major axis was measured from the supracleithrum-posttemporal S-PT joint to the dorsal margin of the epaxialis; the minor as the lateral width of the epaxialis.

Gape width measured as the distance between the left and right coronoid processes of the mandible and buccal length measured as the distance between the anterior tip of the mandible and the depression in the sternohyoideus were calculated to estimate the volume of the buccal cavity.

The capability of the fish to produce force during the closing of the lower jaw was evaluated from the Mechanical Advantage MA in jaw closing Fig. We measured the lever arms associated with jaw-closing systems Bansode et al. L in MA was measured as the distance from the quadrate-articular joint to the point of insertion of the adductor mandibulae muscle on the lower jaw, L out MA as the distance from the quadrate-articular joint to the anterior-most tooth of the lower jaw Westneat ; Bansode et al.

For the gill raker morphological analysis, the first left branchial arch was cut off from the gill. The gill arches were mounted with the gill rakers perpendicular to the base of the arch Amundsen et al. For each specimen, the length of the gill arch LA was measured, and the number of the gill rakers NG were counted; the length of gill rakers LG , the spacing between subsequent gill rakers SG , and the width of gill rakers WG were measured for five gill rakers from the midsection of the gill arch Tanaka et al.

The filtering area, i. The suction index SI , the mechanical advantage MA , and the surface area of gill rakers standardized by SL 2 for polar cod vs.

Antarctic silverfish were tested. After testing normality and homoscedasticity of the distributions with Shapiro-Wink and Levene tests, t tests were conducted for each variable.

To investigate which morphometric features explain the greatest variations between the two polar species, a principal component analysis PCA involving 13 morphological traits was developed. The variables considered were the morphological traits used for the SI and MA metrics, the lengths of the head and mouth, and gill rakers and gill arch metrics.

The morphological measurements were standardized relative to the body size SL of each individual Barnett et al. The 13 morphological traits were compared with t tests. The non-parametric Wilcoxon test was used when the assumptions of normality and homogeneity of variance of the data were not respected. Statistical analyses were performed using the software R 3.

The SI mean value was higher in polar cod than in Antarctic silverfish 0. Conversely, the mean MA index was higher in Antarctic silverfish than in polar cod 0. Boxplots of the values of a suction index SI , b mechanical advantage MA , and c filtering surface calculated on the two polar species.

The filtering surface was significantly larger for polar cod 0. The head length and buccal length of Antarctic silverfish were significantly longer than those of polar cod, but polar cod had a larger gape width Table 2. All the measures of gill rakers were significantly different between the two species Table 2. Polar cod had longer and more numerous gill rakers than Antarctic silverfish.

In Antarctic silverfish, the gills arches were significantly longer and the gill rakers resulted more spaced and thicker Fig. According to the PCA, The two species appear well distinct along the PC1 axis, which ordination is driven by head and buccal length, which are directly involved both in MA and SI, and by features of the filtration system of the gill rakers Fig.

Gill arch morphology of Pleuragramma antarctica a, e and Boreogadus saida b , f. Detail of gill rakers of Pleuragramma antarctica c and Boreogadus saida d. Scale bar 1 mm. Principal component analysis plot developed on 13 morphological traits of feeding apparatus of Boreogadus saida and Pleuragramma antarctica. The biomechanics of feeding in the two species resulted differed significantly, with the polar cod having lower MA and higher SI than the Antarctic silverfish Fig.

In the frame of the available information on fish species, and based on the classification of suction feeders below 0. Datasets from literature about jaw closing in polar and non-polar fishes show a wide range of MA values Table 4. A high MA value defines fishes that are manipulators, i.

The blue-striped grunt Haemulon sciurus , feeding exclusively on benthic prey as brachyuran crabs and polychaetes, is an example of this group. The feeding performance of the blue-striped grunt is optimized by the presence of robust oral jaws, small gape, high MA of jaw closing, and powerful force-generating capability of the adductor mandibulae Liem ; Wainwright and Bellwood The highest MA value is found in species which feeds on epilithic and endolithic autotrophic microorganisms, like the scarrid daisy parrotfish Chlorurus sordidus that crops, scrapes, or bites the calcareous substrate of the coral reef surface with their beak-like and extremely powerful jaws Lange et al.

For the large pelagic fishes, such as Atlantic Spanish mackerel Scomberomorus maculatus , greater amberjack Seriola dumerili and common dolphinfish Coryphaena hippurus , high MA values relate to ram feeding as the capability to produce force with jaws allows to grab nekton such as fishes and large pelagic invertebrates e. In the case of the grey snapper Lutjanus griseus , with varied diet, a high MA value corresponds to the double functions to crush benthic organisms e.

A combination of medium to low MA values and medium to high SI values is found among suction and ram-suction feeders, respectively. In the centrarchid bluegill Lepomis macrochirus , a pure suction feeder, the high SI derived from the large buccal cavity and cross-sectional area of the epaxalis, allows feeding on soft, substrate-attached or elusive prey such as shrimp, small crabs, and fishes Sonnefeld et al.

However, pure suction feeding is rare, in most cases suction is associated to ram activity and enacted by rapid bursts of swimming speed coupled to a powerful suction force Wainwright and Richard The suction force SI value may adjust according to the prey of interest because feeding on prey suspended in the pelagic zone requires a lower suction force compared to feeding on sessile prey fixed to the substratum. Based on the biomechanics of suction, suction feeding is also supported by the capability to produce force with jaws, resulting in medium MA values Westneat ; Collar and Wainwright Polar cod has a medium to high SI value for a planktivore fish and jaw-closing MA values attributable to ram-suction feeding.

Similar MA values are indeed found in the ram-suction midwater zooplanktivore wrasses Labridae Halichoeres pictus and Clepticus parrae Wainwright and Richard Despite having a slightly higher MA value and slightly lower SI value, Antarctic silverfish falls outside the range of suction feeders following Wainwright and Richard Whatever the strategy, both the polar species of our study have the typical characteristics of zooplanktivor fishes, such as high visual acuity i.

Based on the biomechanical characteristics, Carlig et al. This foraging strategy, which seems based on ram activity, is also supported by a good vision Eastman and Lannoo ; La Mesa and Eastman which allows it to select single planktonic prey in the water column Lazzaro This is also supported by the dentition of the Antarctic silverfish, with enlarged teeth about midway in length of lower jaw DeWitt et al.

The jaw metrics for polar cod and Antarctic silverfish reinforce the difference between those two species. In the polar cod, a short head and short buccal length support the capability for fast movements of the jaws underlying a suction feeding strategy to capture small motile prey Wainwright and Bellwood , widespread among midwater predators Motta , Compared to Antarctic silverfish, the polar cod would more effectively use suction and particulate ram-suction as the main feeding mode suggested also by Cusa et al.

These ecomorphological traits are reflected in the diet of adult polar cod which consists of large agile prey such as euphausiids, amphipods, and young fishes Orlova et al. Never delay with the appliance repair because it might lead to serious consequences, sometimes even hazardous to your property like a fire or a leak! Turn to a trusted appliance service center like Poway Appliance Repair and Installation.

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